I.          Review the circular flow model (Figure 2.2).

II.        Marginal productivity theory of labor demand: assuming that a firm sells its product in a purely competitive product market and hires workers in a purely competitive labor market.

A.  The principles in the model apply to all resources, but the focus here is on labor.

      1.   Wages and salaries comprise about 72 percent of all income.

      2.   More than 140 million Americans work in the paid labor force, in a wide array of jobs         and for widely disparate compensation.

B.   Labor demand is derived from demand for products that labor produces.

C.   The demand for labor depends upon the marginal revenue product of labor, which in turn depends upon:

      1.   The productivity of labor;

      2.   The market price of the product being produced.

D.  Discussion of Figure 10.1:

      1.   Review of the Law of Diminishing Returns (declining MP);

      2.   Review the significance of the fixed product price (pure competition);

      3.   Determination of Total Revenue (TR) and Marginal Revenue Product (MRP); MRP is the increase in total revenue that results from the use of each additional unit of a variable input.

4.   MRP depends on productivity of input (recall that marginal product of inputs falls beyond some point in production process due to law of diminishing marginal returns).

5.   MRP also depends on price of product being produced.

E.   Rule for employing resources is to produce where MRP = MRC.

1.   To maximize profits, a firm should hire additional units of a resource as long as each unit adds more to revenue than it does to costs.  (MRC or MFC is the marginal-resource or marginal-factor cost or the cost of hiring the added resource unit.)  Equation form:

2.   Under conditions of pure competition in the labor market where the firm is a “wage taker,” the wage is equal to the MFC.

3.   MRP will be the firm’s resource (labor) demand schedule in a competitive resource market because the firm will hire (demand) the number of resource units where their MRC is equal to their MRP.  For example, the number of workers employed when the wage (MRC) is $12 will be 2; the number of workers hired when the wage (MRC) is $6 will be 5.  In each case, it is the point where the wage (MRC of worker) equals MRP of last worker (Figure 10.1).

III.       Determinants of Resource Demand:

A.  Changes in product demand will shift the demand for the resources that produce it (in the same direction).

B.   Productivity (output per resource unit) changes will shift the demand in same direction.  The productivity of any resource can be altered in several ways:

1.   Quantities of other resources

2.   Technical progress

3.   Quality of labor

C.   Prices of other resources will affect resource demand.

1.   A change in price of a substitute resource has two opposite effects.

a.   Substitution effect example: Lower machine prices decrease demand for labor.

b.   Output effect example: Lower machine prices lower output costs, raise equilibrium output, and increase demand for labor.

c.   These two effects work in opposite directions—the net effect depends on magnitude of each effect.

2.   Change in the price of complementary resource (e.g., where a machine is not a substitute for a worker, but machine and worker work together) causes a change in the demand for the current resource in the opposite direction.  (Rise in price of a complement leads to a decrease in the demand for the related resource; a fall in price of a complement leads to an increase in the demand for related resource). 

D.  Occupational Employment Trends:

1.   Changes in labor demand will affect occupational wage rates and employment.

2.   Discussion of fastest growing occupations.  (Table 10.1)

3.   Discussion of most rapidly declining occupations.  (Table 10.1)

IV.       Elasticity of labor demand is affected by several factors.

A.  Formula of elasticity of labor demand (or wage elasticity of demand):

      measures the sensitivity of producers to changes in resource prices.

B.   If E_w > 1, labor demand is elastic; if E_w < 1, labor demand is inelastic; and if E_w = 1, labor demand is unit-elastic.

C.   Determinants of elasticity of demand:

1.   Ease of resource substitutability: The easier it is to substitute, the more elastic the demand for a specific resource

2.   Elasticity of product demand: The more elastic the product demand, the more elastic the demand for its productive resources.

3.   Resource-cost/total-cost ratio: The greater the proportion of total cost determined by a resource, the more elastic its demand, because any change in resource cost will be more noticeable.

V.        Market Supply of Labor

            A.  The market supply will be determined by the amount of labor offered at different wage rates;    more will be supplied at higher wages because the wage must cover the opportunity costs of    alternative uses of time spent either in other labor markets or in household activities or          leisure (Figure 10.2a).

            B.   The market equilibrium wage and quantity of labor employed will be where the labor     demand and supply curves intersect; in Figure 10.2a this occurs at a $10 wage and 1,000             employed. 

VI.       Wage and Employment Determination

            A.. Each individual firm will take this wage rate as given, and will hire workers up to the point at     which the market wage rate is equal to the MRP of the last worker hired (according to the         MRP = MRC rule).  Note that the demand curve in Figure 10.2 is based on figures from            Table 10.2.

            B.   For each firm, the MRC is constant and equal to the wage because the firm is a “wage taker”      and by itself has no influence on the wage in the competitive model. (Figure 10.2b and Table                      10.2)

VII.     Monopsony

A.  In the monopsony model, the firm’s hiring decisions have an impact on the wage.

1.   Characteristics of the monopsony model:

a.   There is only a single buyer of a particular kind of labor.

b.   The type of labor is relatively immobile, either geographically or in the sense that to find alternative employment workers must acquire new skills.

c.   The firm is a “wage maker” in the sense that the wage rate the firm pays varies directly with the number of workers it employs.

2.   Complete monopsonistic power exists when there is only one major employer in a labor market [one large employer in a small, remote town].  Oligopsony exists when there are only a few major employers in a labor market.  (Note: the root “sony” means “to purchase,” whereas the root “poly” means “to sell.”)  The monopsonistic market is illustrated in Figure 10.3.

a.   The labor supply curve will be upward sloping for the monopsonistic firm; if the firm is large relative to the market, it will have to pay a higher wage rate to attract more labor.

b.   As a result, the marginal resource cost will exceed the wage rate in monopsony because the higher wage paid to additional workers will have to be paid to all similar workers employed.  Therefore, the MRC is the wage rate of an added worker plus the increments that will have to be paid to others already employed.  (See Table 10.3)

c.   Equilibrium in the monopsonistic labor market will also occur where MRC = MRP, but now the MRC is above the wage, so the wage will be lower than it would be if the market were competitive.  As a result, the monopsonistic firm will hire fewer workers than under competitive conditions.

d.   Conclusion: In a monopsonistic labor market there will be fewer workers hired and at a lower wage than would be the case if that same labor market were competitive, other things being equal.

e.   Applying the Analysis: Monopsony Power

      Nurses are paid less in towns with fewer hospitals than in towns with more hospitals. In professional athletics, players’ salaries are held down as a result of the “player drafts” that prevent teams from competing for the new players’ services for several years until they become “free agents.” 

VIII.    Union Models

A.  In the U.S. about 12 percent of wage and salary workers are unionized, a much smaller percentage than in some industrialized nations (Global Snapshot 10.1).

B.   Union models illustrate a different model of imperfect competition in the labor market where the workers are organized so that employers do not deal directly with the individual workers, but with their unions, who try to raise wage rates in several ways. 

1.   Exclusive or craft unions raise wages by restricting the supply of workers, either by large membership fees, long apprenticeships, or forcing employers to hire only union workers. (Figure 10.4)

2.   Occupational licensing requirements are another way of restricting labor supply in order to keep wages high.  Six hundred occupations are licensed in the U.S.

3.   Inclusive or industrial unions do not limit membership but try (usually unsuccessfully) to unionize every worker in a certain industry so that they have the power to impose a higher wage than the employers would otherwise pay (Figure 10.5)  The bargained wage becomes the MRC for the employer between point “a” and point “e”.

4.   Studies indicate that the size of the union advantage averages about 15 percent, but at the cost of higher unemployment for its members.   

X.        Applying the Analysis: The Minimum Wage

            A.  The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 established the Federal minimum wage.

                  1.   The wage ranges between 35 and 50 percent of the average manufacturing wage.

                  2.   The minimum wage in 2005 is $5.15 per hour.

            B.   Controversy concerns the effectiveness of minimum wage legislation as an antipoverty device.  (Figure 10.5 can be used by substituting the minimum wage for the bargained wage.)

C.   The case against the minimum wage contains two major criticisms.

1.   The minimum wage forces employers to pay a higher than equilibrium wage, so they will hire fewer workers as the wage pushes them higher up their MRP curve.

2.   The minimum wage is not an effective tool to fight poverty.  Some minimum wage workers are teens or are from affluent families who do not need protection from poverty.

D.  The case for the minimum wage argues includes other arguments.

1.   Minimum wage laws occur in markets that are not competitive and not static.  In a monopolistic market, the minimum wage increases wages with minimal effects on employment.

2.   Increasing minimum wage may increase productivity.

a.   Managers will use workers more efficiently when they have higher wages.

b.   The minimum wage may reduce labor turnover and thus training costs.

E.   Evidence and conclusions

1.   Employment and unemployment effects are less severe than critics predicted.

2.   Because many who are affected by the minimum wage are not from poverty families, an increase in the minimum wage is not as strong an antipoverty tool as many supports contend.

3.   More workers are helped by the minimum wage than are hurt.

4.   The minimum wage helps give some assurance that employers are not taking advantage of their workers.